The critical pressure at which this instability occurs is a direct function of the diameter and spring rate, and an inverse function of the length. If the bellows is bent, or angulated, the centerline can begin to move away from the center of curvature. In each case, the effective length of the bellows increases, lowering the material available to withstand the pressure, thereby increasing the hoop stresses. As the length increases, the tendency to squirm increases and the stresses become higher and higher until catastrophic failure occurs. A simple way to visualize this phenomena is to remember that the bellows is a cylinder of given volume. Internal pressure tries to increase a vessel's volume. Since a bellows is flexible in the axial direction, it can increase its volume by increasing the length of its centerline. With the end

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